Mechanisms and Equity in Tobacco Control: Global Policy Pathways
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the mechanisms, equity impacts, and sustainability of tobacco control policies across diverse contexts, focusing on taxation, treatment, advertising bans, and governance coherence. The aim was to determine how policies operate, for whom they are most effective, and under what cultural and institutional conditions they succeed. A mixed-methods design combined econometric panel regressions of 25 countries (2010–2025) with multilevel structural equation modelling (SEM) and 12 qualitative case studies. Key mediators (affordability, cessation service reach) and moderators (socio-economic status, cultural norms, governance coherence) were tested. Event-study models traced long-term effects up to seven years post-reform. Taxation and treatment policies produced the most substantial reductions, with taxation associated with a 12.4% decline in smoking prevalence (95% CI: 10.8–14.0%). Treatment services increased quit success rates by 8.7% (±1.2 SE). Equity analysis revealed that fiscal measures alone widened disparities, but coupling taxes with free treatment reduced inequality indices by 21%. Error analysis indicated residual policy endogeneity and limitations in proxy measurement for cultural norms and illicit trade. Comprehensive policy bundles, reinforced by governance coherence and civil society engagement, achieve durable and equitable reductions in tobacco use.

1. Introduction
Tobacco use remains one of the most pressing global health challenges, responsible for over eight million deaths annually, including more than one million attributable to secondhand smoke exposure [1]. Despite decades of progress in tobacco control, the global burden of smoking-related morbidity and mortality remains high, with significant variations across regions and population groups [2], [3]. International frameworks such as the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) have promoted the adoption of evidence-based measures, including taxation, advertising bans, smoke-free policies, and cessation services, all of which have demonstrated varying levels of effectiveness in reducing consumption and improving public health outcomes [4], [5]. Evidence shows that fiscal policies, particularly tobacco taxation, are among the most effective interventions, consistently linked to reductions in smoking prevalence and initiation rates [6], [7]. Similarly, comprehensive smoke-free laws and advertising restrictions have reduced exposure to tobacco marketing and secondhand smoke, though their impact is often contingent upon robust enforcement [8], [9]. Treatment-focused interventions, such as cessation services and pharmacological aids, provide essential support for individuals seeking to quit, yet accessibility and affordability remain significant barriers in many countries [10]. These measures have contributed to declining smoking prevalence in regions such as the United States and parts of Europe, but the pace of decline has slowed, signalling the need for renewed innovation in tobacco control strategies [11], [12]. Despite substantial progress, major research gaps persist. Many studies confirm the effectiveness of tobacco control policies but rarely explore the causal mechanisms by which they operate, leaving uncertainty about how specific components (e.g., taxation vs. public place bans) influence behaviour change [13], [14]. For instance, while taxation reduces affordability, the extent to which this mediates reductions in smoking across different income groups is not fully understood [15]. Similarly, the effectiveness of smoke-free laws may depend on cultural norms and public acceptance, yet the interaction between policy enforcement and societal permissibility is underexplored [16]. These gaps limit policymakers' ability to design interventions tailored to contextspecific needs and equity considerations. Another critical gap lies in the long-term sustainability of tobacco control measures. While short-term reductions in prevalence are well-documented, the durability of these effects over multiple years and generations remains unclear [17], [18]. Longitudinal evaluations are scarce, and questions persist regarding whether policy gains can withstand challenges such as tobacco industry interference, illicit trade, and the rapid growth of alternative nicotine delivery systems like e-cigarettes [19]. Emerging evidence suggests that e-cigarettes may function both as cessation aids and as new gateways to nicotine addiction, complicating the policy landscape [20], [21]. Without a robust understanding of how traditional policies
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Olusola
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